بارادايم
يمكن ترجمة مصطلح (بارادايم) paradigm بأنه (النموذج الفكري) أو النموذج الإدراكي، وقد ظهرت هذه الكلمة منذ أواخر الستينات من القرن العشرين في اللغة الإنجليزية بمفهوم جديد ليشير إلى أي نمط تفكير ضمن أي تخصص علمي أو موضوع متصل بنظرية المعرفة أو الإبستيمولوجيا. وقد كانت الكلمة في أول الأمر قاصرة على قواعد اللغة، حيث كان تعريف قاموس ميريام ويبستر للكلمة من ناحية الاستخدام المتخصص لها في قواعد اللغة أو الكتابة الإنشائية كتشبيه أو حكاية. وفي علوم اللغة أيضا استخدم فرديناند دو سوسور Ferdinand de Saussure كلمة باراديم لتشير إلى طائفة من العناصر ذات الجوانب المتشابهة. المحتويات 1- النموذج الفكري العلمي 2- نقلات النماذج الفكرية 3- استخدامات أخرى 4- النموذج الفكري كصيغة أساسية لرؤية العالم 5- الأصل اللغوي 6- اقتباسات 7- مراجع وروابط
النموذج الفكري العلمي
أعطى الفيلسوف العلمي توماس كون لهذه الكلمة معناها المعاصر عندما استخدمها للإشارة إلى مجموعة الممارسات التي تحدد أي تخصص علمي خلال فترة معينة من الوقت، وقد كان كون نفسه يفضل مصطلحات مثل العلم المعتاد أو النظرية العلمية بالشكل المتعارف عليه، حيث لديها معان فلسفية أكثر تحديدا (في اللغة الإنجليزية)، ولكن في كتابه (بنية الثورات العلمية) قام كون بتعريف النموذج الفكري- البارادايم على إنه: - الموضوع الذي يمكن مراقبته ونقده - الأسئلة التي من المفترض طرحها واستكشافها من أجل الحصول على إجابات فيما يتعلق بالموضوع - كيف يمكن تحديد هيكل وبنية هذه الأسئلة - كيف يمكن تفسير نتائج التحريات العلمية
أو بديلا عن ذلك، يعرّف قاموس أكسفورد كلمة بارادايم على إنها: (طابع أو نموذج أو مثال) وهكذا فإن المكون الإضافي في تعريف كون لمفهوم البارادايم هو: - كيف يمكن القيام بالتجربة وما هي الأدوات المتاحة للقيام بالتجربة
وهكذا فإنه في إطار العلم المعتاد، يكون النموذج الفكري هو مجموعة التجارب المتعارف عليها التي من المفترض أن يتم احتذاء حذوها. ويمثل النموذج الفكري السائد طريقة أكثر تحديدا في رؤية الواقع أو حدود ما يمكن تقبله من أبحاث في المستقبل، وذلك أكثر من مجرد المنهج العلمي العام.
أحد أمثلة النماذج الفكرية المقبولة حاليا هو النموذج المتعارف عليه للفيزياء أو علم الطبيعة. قد يسمح المنهج العلمي بالتحريات العلمية التي تتبع القواعد في العديد من الظواهر المتعارضة مع النموذج المتعارف عليه، ولكن يصعب الحصول على تمويل لمثل هذه الأبحاث والتجارب (لعدم سيرها طبقا لما هو متعارف عليه)، وذلك تبعا لمدى بعدها عن نظريات النموذج المتعارف عليه. فعلى سبيل المثال إذا كان موضوع للتجربة اختبار كتلة النيوترينو أو تحلل البروتون (مما يبعد قليلا عن النموذج المتعارف عليه) فإن من المتوقع لها أن تحصل على تمويل أكثر ما إذا كان موضوعها البحث في مخالفة قانون بقاء الطاقة أو ابتكار وسائل للسفر عبر الزمن عكسيا.
هناك مصطلحات مثل التفكير العام/الجمعي groupthink أو العقلية mindset تحمل نفس المعاني وتنطبق على أمثلة أكبر أو أصغر فيما يتصل بالفكر المنظم.
وقد استخدم ميشيل فوكو مصطلح نظرية المعرفة epstime والخطاب discourse و mathesis و taxinomia لجوانب من مفهوم كون الأصلي للنموذج الفكري-البارادايم.
أحد التشبيهات البسيطة الشائعة هناك تشبيه بسيط للنموذج الفكري-الباراديم بصندوق، وذلك في العبارة الشائعة (التفكير خارج الصندوق)، حيث يماثل التفكير داخل الصندوق العلم المعتاد، حيث يتضمن الصندوق تفكير هذا العلم وبالتالي فإن النموذج الفكري هو الصندوق.
نقلات النماذج الفكرية
تميل النقلات في النماذج الفكرية إلى أن تتخذ طابعا دراماتيكيا في العلوم التي تبدو راسخة وناضجة، كما هو الحال في الفيزياء مع نهاية القرن التاسع عشر، حيث كانت تبدو الفيزياء في ذلك الوقت تخصصا علميا يقوم بملء آخر التفاصيل في منظومة هائلة، وفي عام 1900 قال اللورد كلفين عبارة مشهورة وهي: (لم يعد هناك المزيد لاكتشافه في الفيزياء الآن، ليس هناك إلا المزيد والمزيد من الدقة في القياسات)، وبعد ذلك بخمسة أعوام، أصدر ألبرت أينشتين بحثه حول نظرية النسبية الخاصة، والتي قامت بتحدي أبسط القواعد التي خطتها ميكانيكا نيوتن، والتي جرى استخدامها لوصف القوى والحركة على مدى أكثر من ثلاثمائة عام، وفي هذه الحالة، قام النموذج الفكري الجديد بتقليص النموذج القديم ليناسب حالة خاصة (وبالنسبة لميكانيكا نيوتن فقد كانت مناسبة فقط للوصف التقريبي عند سرعات بطيئة مقارنة بسرعة الضوء)
وفي كتابه (بنية الثورات العلمية)، كتب كون: (التحول المتتالي من أحد النماذج الفكرية إلى نموذج آخر من خلال الثورة هو طابع التطور المعتاد للعلم الناضج) ص 12. وكانت فكرة كون نفسها ثورية في وقته، فقد تسببت في تغير كبير في الطريقة التي يتحدث بها الأكاديميون عن العلم، وهكذا فقد كانت في حد ذاتها نقلة في تاريخ وسوسيولوجية العلم.
وقد تقبل فلاسفة ومؤرخو العلوم في نهاية المطاف بما فيهم كون نفسه نسخة معدلة من نموذج كون، مما يخلق نظرة جديدة لنموذج متدرج يسبقها، وحاليا يُنظر إلى نموذج كون على إنه قاصر جدا.
التطورات اللاحقة
Opaque Kuhnian paradigms and paradigm shifts do exist. A few years after the discovery of the mirror-neurons that provide a hard-wired basis for the human capacity for empathy, the scientists involved were unable to identify the incidents that had directed their attention to the issue. Over the course of the investigation, their language and metaphors had changed so that they themselves could no longer interpret all of their own earlier laboratory notes and records.[1]
Imre Lakatos and research programmes
However, many instances exist in which change in a discipline's core model of reality has happened in a more evolutionary manner, with individual scientists exploring the usefulness of alternatives in a way that would not be possible if they were constrained by a paradigm. Imre Lakatos suggested (as an alternative to Kuhn's formulation) that scientists actually work within research programmes.[2] In Lakatos' sense, a research programme is a sequence of problems, placed in order of priority. This set of priorities, and the associated set of preferred techniques, is the positive heuristic of a programme. Each programme also has a negative heuristic; this consists of a set of fundamental assumptions that – temporarily, at least – takes priority over observational evidence when the two appear to conflict.
This latter aspect of research programmes is inherited from Kuhn's work on paradigms,[citation needed] and represents an important departure from the elementary account of how science works. According to this, science proceeds through repeated cycles of observation, induction, hypothesis-testing, etc., with the test of consistency with empirical evidence being imposed at each stage. Paradigms and research programmes allow anomalies to be set aside, where there is reason to believe that they arise from incomplete knowledge (about either the substantive topic, or some aspect of the theories implicitly used in making observations).
Larry Laudan: Dormant anomalies, fading credibility, and research traditions
Larry Laudan[3] has also made two important contributions to the debate. Laudan believed that something akin to paradigms exist in the social sciences (Kuhn had contested this, see below); he referred to these as research traditions. Laudan noted that some anomalies become "dormant", if they survive a long period during which no competing alternative has shown itself capable of resolving the anomaly. He also presented cases in which a dominant paradigm had withered away because its lost credibility when viewed against changes in the wider intellectual milieu.
In social sciences
Kuhn himself did not consider the concept of paradigm as appropriate for the social sciences. He explains in his preface to The Structure of Scientific Revolutions that he developed the concept of paradigm precisely to distinguish the social from the natural sciences. While visiting the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences in 1958 and 1959, surrounded by social scientists, he observed that they were never in agreement about the nature of legitimate scientific problems and methods. He explains that he wrote this book precisely to show that there can never be any paradigms in the social sciences. Mattei Dogan, a French sociologist, in his article "Paradigms in the Social Sciences", develops Kuhn's original thesis that there are no paradigms at all in the social sciences since the concepts are polysemic, involving the deliberate mutual ignorance between scholars and the proliferation of schools in these disciplines. Dogan provides many examples of the non-existence of paradigms in the social sciences in his essay, particularly in sociology, political science and political anthropology.
However, both Kuhn's original work and Dogan's commentary are directed at disciplines that are defined by conventional labels (such as "sociology"). While it is true that such broad groupings in the social sciences are usually not based on a Kuhnian paradigm, each of the competing sub-disciplines may still be underpinned by a paradigm, research programme, research tradition, and/ or professional imagery. These structures will be motivating research, providing it with an agenda, defining what is and is not anomalous evidence, and inhibiting debate with other groups that fall under the same broad disciplinary label. (A good example is provided by the contrast between Skinnerian radical behaviourism and personal construct theory (PCT) within psychology. The most significant of the many ways these two sub-disciplines of psychology differ concerns meanings and intentions. In PCT, they are seen as the central concern of psychology; in radical behaviourism, they are not scientific evidence at all, as they cannot be directly observed.)
Such considerations explain the conflict between the Kuhn/ Dogan view, and the views of others (including Larry Laudan, see above), who do apply these concepts to social sciences.
Handa,[4] M.L. (1986) introduced the idea of "social paradigm" in the context of social sciences. He identified the basic components of a social paradigm. Like Kuhn, Handa addressed the issue of changing paradigm; the process popularly known as "paradigm shift". In this respect, he focused on social circumstances that precipitate such a shift and the effects of the shift on social institutions, including the institution of education. This broad shift in the social arena, in turn, changes the way the individual perceives reality.
Another use of the word paradigm is in the sense of "worldview". For example, in social science, the term is used to describe the set of experiences, beliefs and values that affect the way an individual perceives reality and responds to that perception. Social scientists have adopted the Kuhnian phrase "paradigm shift" to denote a change in how a given society goes about organizing and understanding reality. A "dominant paradigm" refers to the values, or system of thought, in a society that are most standard and widely held at a given time. Dominant paradigms are shaped both by the community's cultural background and by the context of the historical moment. Hutchin [5] outlines some conditions that facilitate a system of thought to become an accepted dominant paradigm:
- Professional organizations that give legitimacy to the paradigm
- Dynamic leaders who introduce and purport the paradigm
- Journals and editors who write about the system of thought. They both disseminate the information essential to the paradigm and give the paradigm legitimacy
- Government agencies who give credence to the paradigm
- Educators who propagate the paradigm's ideas by teaching it to students
- Conferences conducted that are devoted to discussing ideas central to the paradigm
- Media coverage
- Lay groups, or groups based around the concerns of lay persons, that embrace the beliefs central to the paradigm
- Sources of funding to further research on the paradigm
استخدامات أخرى
The word paradigm is also still used to indicate a pattern or model or an outstandingly clear or typical example or archetype, a "paradigm case". The term is frequently used in this sense in the design professions. Design Paradigms or archetypes comprise functional precedents for design solutions. The best known references on design paradigms are Design Paradigms: A Sourcebook for Creative Visualization, by Wake, and Design Paradigms by Petroski.
This term is also used in cybernetics. Here it means (in a very wide sense) a (conceptual) protoprogram for reducing the chaotic mass to some form of order. Note the similarities to the concept of entropy in chemistry and physics. A paradigm there would be a sort of prohibition to proceed with any action that would increase the total entropy of the system. To create a paradigm requires a closed system that accepts changes. Thus a paradigm can only apply to a system that is not in its final stage.
Beyond its use in the physical and social sciences, Kuhn's paradigm concept has been analysed in relation to its applicability in identifying 'paradigms' with respect to worldviews at specific points in history. One example is Matthew Edward Harris' book The Notion of Papal Monarchy in the Thirteenth Century: The Idea of Paradigm in Church History.[6] Harris stresses the primarily sociological importance of paradigms, pointing towards Kuhn's second edition of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Although obedience to popes such as Innocent III and Boniface VIII was widespread, even written testimony from the time showing loyalty to the pope does not demonstrate that the writer had the same worldview as the Church, and therefore pope, at the centre. The difference between paradigms in the physical sciences and in historical organisations such as the Church is that the former, unlike the latter, requires technical expertise rather than repeating statements. In other words, after scientific training through what Kuhn calls 'exemplars', one could not genuinely believe that, to take a trivial example, the earth is flat, whereas thinkers such as Giles of Rome in the thirteenth century wrote in favour of the pope, then could easily write similarly glowing things about the king. A writer such as Giles would have wanted a good job from the pope; he was a papal publicist. However, Harris writes that 'scientific group membership is not concerned with desire, emotions, gain, loss and any idealistic notions concerning the nature and destiny of humankind...but simply to do with aptitude, explanation, [and] cold description of the facts of the world and the universe from within a paradigm'.[7]
انظر أيضاً
- Algorithm
- Argument from analogy
- Basic beliefs
- Case-based reasoning
- Cognitive model
- Concept
- Theory-ladenness
- Conceptual framework
- Conceptual model
- Conceptual schema
- Construct (philosophy)
- Contextualism
- Dogma
- Dispositif
- Flying geese paradigm
- Groupthink
- Heuristic
- Ideology
- Thomas Kuhn
- Mental model
- Mental representation
- Metalinguistic abstraction
- Metanarrative
- Methodology
- Mindset
- Perspectivism
- Point of view (philosophy)
- Poststructuralism
- Programming paradigm
- Schema (psychology)
- School of thought
- Scientific Revolution
- Set (psychology)
- Structuralism
- The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
- Trading zones (metaphor)
- Triune continuum paradigm
- World view
- The history of the various paradigms in evolutionary biology (Wikiversity)
الهامش
- ^ Iacoboni, M. (2008), Mirroring People: The New Science of How We Connect with Others. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Page 17.
- ^ [16] Lakatos, I. (1970), "Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes", in Lakatos, I. and Musgrave, A. (eds.) (1990), Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge. Cambridge.
- ^ Laudan, L. (1977), Progress and Its Problems: Towards a Theory of Scientific Growth. University of California Press, Berkeley.
- ^ Handa, M. L. (1986) "Peace Paradigm: Transcending Liberal and Marxian Paradigms". Paper presented in "International Symposium on Science, Technology and Development, New Delhi, India, March 20–25, 1987, Mimeographed at O.I.S.E., University of Toronto, Canada (1986)
- ^ Hutchin, Ted (2013) The Right Choice : Using Theory of Constraints for Effective Leadership, Taylor and Francis, Hoboken, p. 124 ISBN 978-1-4398-8625-0
- ^ Harris, Matthew (2010). The notion of papal monarchy in the thirteenth century : the idea of paradigm in church history. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press. p. 160. ISBN 978-0-7734-1441-9.
- ^ Harris, Matthew (2010). The notion of papal monarchy in the thirteenth century: the idea of paradigm in church history. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-7734-1441-9.
المراجع
- Clarke, Thomas and Clegg, Stewart (eds). Changing Paradigms. London: HarperCollins, 2000. ISBN 0-00-638731-4
- Dogan, Mattei., "Paradigms in the Social Sciences", in International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences, Volume 16, 2001)
- Hammersley, Martyn (1992). "The Paradigm Wars: Reports from the Front". British Journal of Sociology of Education. 13 (1): 131–143. doi:10.1080/0142569920130110. JSTOR 1392863.
- Handa, M. L. (1986) "Peace Paradigm: Transcending Liberal and Marxian Paradigms" Paper presented in "International Symposium on Science, Technology and Development, New Delhi, India, March 20–25, 1987, Mimeographed at O.I.S.E., University of Toronto, Canada (1986)
- Harris, Matthew Edward. The Notion of Papal Monarchy in the Thirteenth Century: The Idea of Paradigm in Church History. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-7734-1441-9
- Hutchin, Ted. The Right Choice : Using Theory of Constraints for Effective Leadership, Hoboken : Taylor and Francis, 2013. ISBN 978-1-4398-8625-0
- Kuhn, Thomas S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 3rd Ed. Chicago and London: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1996. ISBN 0-226-45808-3 – Google Books Aug. 2011
- Masterman, Margaret, "The Nature of a Paradigm", pp. 59–89 in Imre Lakatos and Alan Musgrave. Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1970. ISBN 0-521-09623-5
- Popper, Karl. The Logic of Scientific Discovery, 1934 (as Logik der Forschung, English translation 1959), ISBN 0-415-27844-9.
- The Fourth Paradigm: Data-Intensive Scientific Discovery, Microsoft Research, 2009, ISBN 978-0-9825442-0-4 http://fourthparadigm.org
- Encyclopædia Britannica, Univ. of Chicago, 2003, ISBN 0-85229-961-3
- Cristianini, Nello, "On the Current Paradigm in Artificial Intelligence"; AI Communications 27 (1): 37–43. 2014
