إبداع مخل بالنظام

An 1880 penny-farthing (left), and an 1886 Rover safety bicycle with gearing

أنواع الابداع
المعزز ابداع لا يؤثر على الأسواق القائمة. تطوري ابداع يعزز منتج في السوق بطرق يقبلها المستهلكين (مثل الحقن الإلكتروني للوقود) ثوري (غير مستمرة، راديكالي) ابداع غير متوقع، لكنه مع ذلك لا يؤثر على الأسواق القائمة (مثل السيارات) مخل بالنظام ابداع يخلق سوق جديد عن طريق تطبيق مجموعة مختلفة من القيم، التي في نهاية المطاف (وبطريقة مفاجئة) تتفوق على الأسواق القائمة (مثل السعر المنخفض للسيارة فورد تي)

الابداع المخل بالنظام disruptive innovation، هو ابداع يساعد على خلق سوق جديدة وشبكة قيمة، وفي النهاية يخل بالسوق وشبكة القيمة القائمة (على مدار سنوات قليلة أو عقود)، ليحل محل التكنولوجيا الأولى. يستخدم هذا المصطلح في أدب التكنولوجيا والأعمال لوصف ابداعات تعزز منتج أو خدمة بطرق لا يقبلها السوق، عادة ما يتم تصميمها في البداية لمجموعة مختلفة من العملاء في السوق الجديد وفيما بعد تكتسح السوق القائمة لانخفاض أسعارها.

على نقيض الابداع المخل بالنظام ، نجد ان الابداع المعزز لا يخلق أسواق جديدة أو شبكات قيمة لكنه فقد يطور الأسواق القائمة بقيمة أفضل، ويسمح للشركات الموجودة بالتنافس فيما بينها. الابداعات المعززة قد تكون أيضاً "غير مستمرة" ("انتقالية" أو "ثورية") أو "مستمرة" (مثل "الثورية").

انتشر استخدام مصطلح "التكنولوجيا المخلة بالنظام" كمرادف لمصطلح "الابداع المخل بالنظام"، لكن المصطلح الأخير أصبح أكثر استخداماً، لأن الاخلال بنظام السوق يحدث عادة ليس بسبب التكنولوجيا ذاتها لكنه يحدث أكثر بسبب تطبيق التغيير التكنولوجي. الاختراعات المعززة هي عادة ابداعات في التكنولوجيا، حيث تغير الابداعات المخلة بالنظام الأسواق بالكامل. على سبيل المثال، كانت السيارات ابداع تكنولوجي ثوري، لكنها لم تكن ابداع مخل بالنظام، لأن السيارات المبكرة كانت منتجات رفاهية مرتفعة الثمن ولم تخل بسوق العربات التي تجرها الخيول. وظلت سوق النقل مستقرة حتى خرجت السيارة فورد تي منخفضة الثمن عام 1908. صناعة السيارات على نطاق كبير كانت إبداع مخل بالنظام، لأنها غيرت سوق النقل. السيارات نفسها لم تكن كذلك.

 تاريخ الاستخدام

أنماط كريستنسن للإبداع

مستدامة

An innovation that does not significantly affect existing markets. It may be either:

تطورية

An innovation that improves a product in an existing market in ways that customers are expecting (e.g., fuel injection for gasoline engines, which displaced carburetors.)

ثورية (غير متصلة لكنها مستدامة)

An innovation that is unexpected, but nevertheless does not affect existing markets (e.g., the first automobiles in the late 19th century, which were expensive luxury items, and as such very few were sold and did not displace any existing product or service.)

مخلة بالنظام

An innovation that creates a new market or enters at the bottom of an existing market by providing a different set of values, which ultimately (and unexpectedly) overtakes incumbents (e.g., the lower-priced, affordable Ford Model T, which displaced horse-drawn carriages)

The term disruptive technologies was coined by Clayton M. Christensen and introduced in his 1995 article Disruptive Technologies: Catching the Wave, which he cowrote with Joseph Bower. Similar ideas had previously been described in Richard N. Foster's book Innovation: The Attacker's Advantage and in the paper "Strategic responses to technological threats", as well as by Joseph Schumpeter in the book Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (as creative destruction).

The article is aimed at both management executives who make the funding or purchasing decisions in companies, as well as the research community, which is largely responsible for introducing the disruptive vector to the consumer market. He describes the term further in his book The Innovator's Dilemma. Innovator's Dilemma explored the case of the disk drive industry (the disk drive and memory industry, with its rapid technological evolution, is to the study of technology what fruit flies are to the study of genetics, as Christensen was told in the 1990s) and the excavating and Earth-moving industry (where hydraulic actuation slowly, yet eventually, displaced cable-actuated machinery). In his sequel with Michael E. Raynor, The Innovator's Solution, Christensen replaced the term disruptive technology with disruptive innovation because he recognized that most technologies are not intrinsically disruptive or sustaining in character; rather, it is the business model that identifies the crucial idea that potentiates profound market success and subsequently serves as the disruptive vector. Comprehending Christensen's business model, which takes the disruptive vector from the idea borne from the mind of the innovator to a marketable product, is central to understanding how novel technology facilitates the rapid destruction of established technologies and markets by the disruptor. Christensen and Mark W. Johnson, who cofounded the management consulting firm Innosight, described the dynamics of "business model innovation" in the 2008 Harvard Business Review article "Reinventing Your Business Model". The concept of disruptive technology continues a long tradition of identifying radical technological change in the study of innovation by economists, and its implementation and execution by its management at a corporate or policy level.

According to Christensen, "the term 'disruptive innovation' is misleading when it is used to refer to the derivative, or 'instantaneous value', of the market behavior of the product or service, rather than the integral, or 'sum over histories', of the product's market behavior."

In the late 1990s, the automotive sector began to embrace a perspective of "constructive disruptive technology" by working with the consultant David E. O'Ryan, whereby the use of current off-the-shelf technology was integrated with newer innovation to create what he called "an unfair advantage". The process or technology change as a whole had to be "constructive" in improving the current method of manufacturing, yet disruptively impact the whole of the business case model, resulting in a significant reduction of waste, energy, materials, labor, or legacy costs to the user.

In keeping with the insight that a persuasive advertising campaign can be just as effective as technological sophistication at bringing a successful product to market, Christensen's theory explains why many disruptive innovations are not advanced or useful technologies, rather combinations of existing off-the-shelf components, applied shrewdly to a fledgling value network.

Online news site TechRepublic proposes an end using the term, and similar related terms, suggesting that, as of 2014, it is overused jargon.

 Definition

• Disruption is a process, not a product or service, that occurs from the nascent to the mainstream
• Originates in low-end (less demanding customers) or new market (where none existed) footholds
• New firms do not catch on with mainstream customers until quality catches up with their standards
• Success is not a requirement and some business can be disruptive but fail
• New firm's business model differs significantly from incumbent

Christensen continues to develop and refine the theory and has accepted that not all examples of disruptive innovation perfectly fit into his theory. For example, he conceded that originating in the low end of the market is not always a cause of disruptive innovation, but rather it fosters competitive business models, using Uber as an example. In an interview with Forbes magazine he stated:

Uber helped me realize that it isn't that being at the bottom of the market is the causal mechanism, but that it's correlated with a business model that is unattractive to its competitor.

Entrepreneur Chris Dixon cited the theory for the idea that "the next big thing always starts out being dismissed as a 'toy'".

 النظرية

The current theoretical understanding of disruptive innovation is different from what might be expected by default, an idea that Clayton M. Christensen called the "technology mudslide hypothesis". This is the simplistic idea that an established firm fails because it doesn't "keep up technologically" with other firms. In this hypothesis, firms are like climbers scrambling upward on crumbling footing, where it takes constant upward-climbing effort just to stay still, and any break from the effort (such as complacency born of profitability) causes a rapid downhill slide. Christensen and colleagues have shown that this simplistic hypothesis is wrong; it doesn't model reality. What they have shown is that good firms are usually aware of the innovations, but their business environment does not allow them to pursue them when they first arise, because they are not profitable enough at first and because their development can take scarce resources away from that of sustaining innovations (which are needed to compete against current competition). In Christensen's terms, a firm's existing value networks place insufficient value on the disruptive innovation to allow its pursuit by that firm. Meanwhile, start-up firms inhabit different value networks, at least until the day that their disruptive innovation is able to invade the older value network. At that time, the established firm in that network can at best only fend off the market share attack with a me-too entry, for which survival (not thriving) is the only reward.

In the technology mudslide hypothesis, Christensen differentiated disruptive innovation from sustaining innovation, whose goal is to improve existing product performance. On the other hand, he defines a disruptive innovation as a product or service designed for a new set of customers.

Generally, disruptive innovations were technologically straightforward, consisting of off-the-shelf components put together in a product architecture that was often simpler than prior approaches. They offered less of what customers in established markets wanted and so could rarely be initially employed there. They offered a different package of attributes valued only in emerging markets remote from, and unimportant to, the mainstream.

Christensen also noted that products considered as disruptive innovations tend to skip stages in the traditional product design and development process to quickly gain market traction and competitive advantage. He argued that disruptive innovations can hurt successful, well-managed companies that are responsive to their customers and have excellent research and development. These companies tend to ignore the markets most susceptible to disruptive innovations, because the markets have very tight profit margins and are too small to provide a good growth rate to an established (sizable) firm. Thus, disruptive technology provides an example of an instance when the common business-world advice to "focus on the customer" (or "stay close to the customer", or "listen to the customer") can be strategically counterproductive.

While Christensen argued that disruptive innovations can hurt successful, well-managed companies, O'Ryan countered that "constructive" integration of existing, new, and forward-thinking innovation could improve the economic benefits of these same well-managed companies, once decision-making management understood the systemic benefits as a whole.

كيفية حدوث الإخلال بالنظام.

Christensen distinguishes between "low-end disruption", which targets customers who do not need the full performance valued by customers at the high end of the market, and "new-market disruption", which targets customers who have needs that were previously unserved by existing incumbents.

 Low-end disruption

"Low-end disruption" occurs when the rate at which products improve exceeds the rate at which customers can adopt the new performance. Therefore, at some point the performance of the product overshoots the needs of certain customer segments. At this point, a disruptive technology may enter the market and provide a product that has lower performance than the incumbent but that exceeds the requirements of certain segments, thereby gaining a foothold in the market.

In low-end disruption, the disruptor is focused initially on serving the least profitable customer, who is happy with a good enough product. This type of customer is not willing to pay premium for enhancements in product functionality. Once the disruptor has gained a foothold in this customer segment, it seeks to improve its profit margin. To get higher profit margins, the disruptor needs to enter the segment where the customer is willing to pay a little more for higher quality. To ensure this quality in its product, the disruptor needs to innovate. The incumbent will not do much to retain its share in a not-so-profitable segment, and will move up-market and focus on its more attractive customers. After a number of such encounters, the incumbent is squeezed into smaller markets than it was previously serving. And then, finally, the disruptive technology meets the demands of the most profitable segment and drives the established company out of the market.

 New market disruption

"New market disruption" occurs when a product fits a new or emerging market segment that is not being served by existing incumbents in the industry. Some scholars note that the creation of a new market is a defining feature of disruptive innovation, particularly in the way it tends to improve products or services differently in comparison to normal market drivers. It initially caters to a niche market and proceeds on defining the industry over time once it is able to penetrate the market or induce consumers to defect from the existing market into the new market it created.

 الثمن الاجتماعي

W. Chan Kim and Renée Mauborgne, the authors of Blue Ocean Strategy, also published a book in 2023, Beyond Disruption, criticizing disruptive innovation for the layoffs and social costs it tends to incur.

 Proactive approach

A proactive approach to addressing the challenge posed by disruptive innovations has been debated by scholars. Petzold criticized the lack of acknowledgment of underlying process of the change to study the disruptive innovation over time from a process view and complexify the concept to support the understanding of its unfolding and advance its manageability. Keeping in view the multidimensional nature of disruptive innovation a measurement framework has been developed by Guo to enable a systemic assessment of disruptive potential of innovations, providing insights for the decisions in product/service launch and resource allocation. Middle managers play an important role in long term sustainability of any firm and thus have been studied to have a proactive role in exploitation of the disruptive innovation process.

 انتقاد

The extrapolation of the theory to all aspects of life has been challenged, as has the methodology of relying on selected case studies as the principal form of evidence. Jill Lepore points out that some companies identified by the theory as victims of disruption a decade or more ago, rather than being defunct, remain dominant in their industries today (including Seagate Technology, U.S. Steel, and Bucyrus). Lepore questions whether the theory has been oversold and misapplied, as if it were able to explain everything in every sphere of life, including not just business but education and public institutions.

 Disruptive technology

In 2009, Milan Zeleny described high technology as disruptive technology and raised the question of what is being disrupted. The answer, according to Zeleny, is the support network of high technology. For example, introducing electric cars disrupts the support network for gasoline cars (network of gas and service stations). Such disruption is fully expected and therefore effectively resisted by support net owners. In the long run, high (disruptive) technology bypasses, upgrades, or replaces the outdated support network.

Questioning the concept of a disruptive technology, Haxell (2012) questions how such technologies get named and framed, pointing out that this is a positioned and retrospective act.

Technology, being a form of social relationship, always evolves. No technology remains fixed. Technology starts, develops, persists, mutates, stagnates, and declines, just like living organisms. The evolutionary life cycle occurs in the use and development of any technology. A new high-technology core emerges and challenges existing technology support nets (TSNs), which are thus forced to coevolve with it. New versions of the core are designed and fitted into an increasingly appropriate TSN, with smaller and smaller high-technology effects. High technology becomes regular technology, with more efficient versions fitting the same support net. Finally, even the efficiency gains diminish, emphasis shifts to product tertiary attributes (appearance, style), and technology becomes TSN-preserving appropriate technology. This technological equilibrium state becomes established and fixated, resisting being interrupted by a technological mutation; then new high technology appears and the cycle is repeated.

Regarding this evolving process of technology, Christensen said:

The technological changes that damage established companies are usually not radically new or difficult from a technological point of view. They do, however, have two important characteristics: First, they typically present a different package of performance attributes—ones that, at least at the outset, are not valued by existing customers. Second, the performance attributes that existing customers do value improve at such a rapid rate that the new technology can later invade those established markets.

The World Bank's 2019 World Development Report on The Changing Nature of Work examines how technology shapes the relative demand for certain skills in labor markets and expands the reach of firms - robotics and digital technologies, for example, enable firms to automate, replacing labor with machines to become more efficient, and innovate, expanding the number of tasks and products. Joseph Bower explained the process of how disruptive technology, through its requisite support net, dramatically transforms a certain industry.

When the technology that has the potential for revolutionizing an industry emerges, established companies typically see it as unattractive: it's not something their mainstream customers want, and its projected profit margins aren't sufficient to cover big-company cost structure. As a result, the new technology tends to get ignored in favor of what's currently popular with the best customers. But then another company steps in to bring the innovation to a new market. Once the disruptive technology becomes established there, smaller-scale innovation rapidly raise the technology's performance on attributes that mainstream customers' value.

For example, the automobile was high technology with respect to the horse carriage. It evolved into technology and finally into appropriate technology with a stable, unchanging TSN. The main high-technology advance in the offing is some form of electric car—whether the energy source is the sun, hydrogen, water, air pressure, or traditional charging outlet. Electric cars preceded the gasoline automobile by many decades and are now returning to replace the traditional gasoline automobile. The printing press was a development that changed the way that information was stored, transmitted, and replicated. This allowed empowered authors but it also promoted censorship and information overload in writing technology.

Milan Zeleny described the above phenomenon. He also wrote that:

Implementing high technology is often resisted. This resistance is well understood on the part of active participants in the requisite TSN. The electric car will be resisted by gas-station operators in the same way automated teller machines (ATMs) were resisted by bank tellers and automobiles by horsewhip makers. Technology does not qualitatively restructure the TSN and therefore will not be resisted and never has been resisted. Middle management resists business process reengineering because BPR represents a direct assault on the support net (coordinative hierarchy) they thrive on. Teamwork and multi-functionality is resisted by those whose TSN provides the comfort of narrow specialization and command-driven work.

Social media could be considered a disruptive innovation within sports. More specifically, the way that news in sports circulates nowadays versus the pre-internet era where sports news was mainly on TV, radio and newspapers. Social media has created a new market for sports that was not around before in the sense that players and fans have instant access to information related to sports.

Disruptiveness of research articles can be estimated with CD index.

 High-technology effects

High technology is a technology core that changes the very architecture (structure and organization) of the components of the technology support net. High technology therefore transforms the qualitative nature of the TSN's tasks and their relations, as well as their requisite physical, energy, and information flows. It also affects the skills required, the roles played, and the styles of management and coordination—the organizational culture itself.

This kind of technology core is different from regular technology core, which preserves the qualitative nature of flows and the structure of the support and only allows users to perform the same tasks in the same way, but faster, more reliably, in larger quantities, or more efficiently. It is also different from appropriate technology core, which preserves the TSN itself with the purpose of technology implementation and allows users to do the same thing in the same way at comparable levels of efficiency, instead of improving the efficiency of performance.

On differences between high and low technologies, Milan Zeleny wrote:

The effects of high technology always breaks the direct comparability by changing the system itself, therefore requiring new measures and new assessments of its productivity. High technology cannot be compared and evaluated with the existing technology purely on the basis of cost, net present value or return on investment. Only within an unchanging and relatively stable TSN would such direct financial comparability be meaningful. For example, you can directly compare a manual typewriter with an electric typewriter, but not a typewriter with a word processor. Therein lies the management challenge of high technology.

Not all modern technologies are high technologies, only those used and functioning as such, and embedded in their requisite TSNs. They have to empower the individual because only through the individual can they empower knowledge. Not all information technologies have integrative effects. Some information systems are still designed to improve the traditional hierarchy of command and thus preserve and entrench the existing TSN. The administrative model of management, for instance, further aggravates the division of task and labor, further specializes knowledge, separates management from workers, and concentrates information and knowledge in centers.

As knowledge surpasses capital, labor, and raw materials as the dominant economic resource, technologies are also starting to reflect this shift. Technologies are rapidly shifting from centralized hierarchies to distributed networks. Nowadays knowledge does not reside in a super-mind, super-book, or super-database, but in a complex relational pattern of networks brought forth to coordinate human action.

 أمثلة على الابداعات المخلة بالنظام

الابداع	السوق المتأثر	هوامش
القرص المرن بسعة 8 بوصة	القرص المرن بسعة 14 بوصة	The floppy disk drive market has had unusually large changes in market share over the past fifty years. According to Clayton M. Christensen's research, the cause of this instability was a repeating pattern of disruptive innovations. For example, in 1981, the old 8 inch drives (used in mini computers) were "vastly superior" to the new 5.25 inch drives (used in desktop computers). However, 8 inch drives were not affordable for the new desktop machines. The simple 5.25 inch drive, assembled from technologically inferior "off-the-shelf" components, was an "innovation" only in the sense that it was new. However, as this market grew and the drives improved, the companies that manufactured them eventually triumphed while many of the existing manufacturers of eight inch drives fell behind.
القرص المرن سعة 5.25 بوصة	القرص المرن سعة 8 بوصة
القرص المرن سعة 3.5	القرص المرن سعة 5.25 بوصة
Bernoulli drive and Zip drive	القرص المرن سعة 3.5 بوصة
CDs and USB flash drives	Bernoulli drive and Zip drive
Pocket calculator	3.5 Standard Calculator	Worse computing performance and portable
الميديا الرقمية القابلة للتنزيل	الأقراص المضغوطة، الأقراص الرقمية	In the 1990s, the music industry phased out the single, leaving consumers with no means to purchase individual songs. This market was initially filled by illegal peer-to-peer file sharing technologies, and then by online retailers such as the iTunes Store and Amazon.com. This low end disruption eventually undermined the sales of physical, high-cost CDs.
الحوسبة السحابية	USB flash drives	While downloadable Digital media displaced CDs and DVDs as a medium for entertainment media, cloud computing displaces the need for local physical media to store digital data in general.
Hydraulic excavators	Cable-operated excavators	Hydraulic excavators were clearly innovative at the time of introduction but they gain widespread use only decades after. However, cable-operated excavators are still used in some cases, mainly for large excavations.
Mini steel mills	Vertically integrated steel mills	By using mostly locally available scrap and power sources these mills can be cost effective even though not large.
Minicomputers	Mainframes	Minicomputers were originally presented as an inexpensive alternative to mainframes and mainframe manufacturers did not consider them a serious threat in their market. Eventually, the market for minicomputers became much larger than the market for mainframes. Similarly, the market for main frames and mini-computers was seriously disrupted by personal computers. Although they were not at all competitive at the time of their introduction in the 1970s, by the mid 1980s they had improved exponentially and could compete directly with the more expensive machines.
الحواسب الشخصية	Minicomputers, Workstations. Word processors, Lisp machines
النشر المكتبي	النشر التقليدي	Early desktop-publishing systems could not match high-end professional systems in either features or quality. Nevertheless, they lowered the cost of entry to the publishing business, and economies of scale eventually enabled them to match, and then surpass, the functionality of the older dedicated publishing systems.
طابعات الحاسوب	الطباعة الاوفست	Offset printing has a high overhead cost, but very low unit cost compared to computer printers, and superior quality. But as printers, especially laser printers, have improved in speed and quality, they have become increasingly useful for creating documents in limited issues.
التصوير الرقمي	التصوير الكيميائي	Early digital cameras suffered from low picture quality and resolution and long shutter lag. Quality and resolution are no longer major issues and shutter lag is much less than it used to be. The convenience of small memory cards and portable hard drives that hold hundreds or thousands of pictures, as well as the lack of the need to develop these pictures, also helped. Digital cameras have a high power consumption (but several lightweight battery packs can provide enough power for thousands of pictures). Cameras for classic photography are stand-alone devices. In the same manner, high-resolution digital video recording has replaced film stock, except for high-budget motion pictures.
High speed CMOS video sensors	Photographic film	When first introduced, high speed CMOS sensors were less sensitive, had lower resolution, and cameras based on them had less duration (record time). The advantage of rapid setup time, editing in the camera, and nearly-instantaneous review quickly eliminated 16 mm high speed film systems. CMOS-based cameras also require less power (single phase 110 V AC and a few amps for CMOS, vs. 240 V single- or three-phase at 20-50 A for film cameras). Continuing advances have overtaken 35 mm film and are challenging 70 mm film applications.
Steamboats	Sailing ships	The first steamships were deployed on inland waters where sailing ships were less effective, instead of on the higher profit margin seagoing routes. Hence steamships originally only competed in traditional shipping lines' "worst" markets.
الهواتف	التلغراف	When Western Union infamously declined to purchase Alexander Graham Bell's telephone patents for $100,000, their highest-profit market was long-distance telegraphy. Telephones were only useful for very local calls. Short-distance telegraphy barely existed as a market segment, which explains Western Union's decision.
السيارات	Ratransport	At the beginning of the 20th century, rail (including streetcars) was the fastest and most cost-efficient means of land transportation for goods and passengers in industrialized countries. The first cars, buses and trucks were used for local transportation in suburban areas, where they often replaced streetcars and industrial tracks. As highways expanded, medium- and later long-distance transports were relocated to road traffic, and some railways closed down. As rail traffic has a lower ton-kilometer cost, but a higher investment and operating cost than road traffic, rail is still preferred for large-scale bulk cargo (such as minerals).
Private jet	Supersonic transport	The Concorde aircraft has so far been the only supersonic airliner in extensive commercial traffic. However, it catered to a small customer segment, which could later afford small private sub-sonic jets. The loss of speed was compensated by flexibility and a more direct routing (i.e. no need to go through a hub). Supersonic flight is also banned above inhabited land, due to sonic booms. The Concorde service was withdrawn in 2003.
Plastic	Metal, wood, glass etc.	Bakelite and other early plastics had very limited use - their main advantages were electric insulation and low cost. New forms had advantages such as transparency, elasticity and combustibility. In the early 21st century, plastics can be used for nearly all household items previously made of metal, wood and glass.
الصمامات الثنائية الباعثة للضوء	Light bulbs	A LED is significantly smaller and less power-consuming than a light bulb. The first optical LEDs were weak, and only useful as indicator lights. Later models could be used for indoor lighting, and future ones will probably be strong enough to serve as street lights. Incandescent light bulbs are being phased out in many countries.
Digital synthesizer	Electronic organ and piano	Synthesizers were initially low-cost, low-weight alternatives to electronic organs and acoustic pianos. Today's synthesizers feature many automated functions and have replaced them for home and hobby users.
LCD	CRT	The first liquid crystal displays (LCD) were monochromatic and had low resolution. They were used in watches and other handheld devices, but during the early 2000s these (and other planar technologies) largely replaced the dominant cathode ray tube (CRT) technology for computer displays and television sets, although CRT technologies have improved with advances like true-flat panels and digital controls only recently.
Digital calculator	Mechanical calculator	Facit AB used to dominate the European market for calculators, but did not adapt digital technology, and failed to compete with digital competitors.
Ultrasound	Radiography (X-ray imaging)	Ultrasound technology is disruptive relative to X-ray imaging. Ultrasound was a new-market disruption. None of the X-ray companies participated in ultrasound until they acquired major ultrasound equipment companies.
Massively Open Online Courses (MOOCs), Blended Learning, and Tightly structured, career-focused learning.	Higher Education	Notes: Higher Education is an industry that has experienced massive price and cost increases in recent decades. Tuition and fees at U.S. public and private colleges have risen by an average of 439 percent after allowing for inflation (from 1982 through 2007). This challenge has mandated a new definition of quality from the perspective of students – so that their choice for higher education is valuable, efficient, and practical. There are a number of disruptive innovations that are providing students with alternatives to the traditional University approach, including: Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs): Internet-based teaching programs designed to handle thousands of students simultaneously, in part using the tactics of social-networking websites. MOOCs had exploded into the academic consciousness in summer 2011, when a free artificial-intelligence course offered by Stanford University in California attracted 160,000 students from around the world — 23,000 of whom finished it. Blended Learning: Blended learning is a form of education in which student learns at least in part through online delivery of content and instruction. During the last decade, the National Center for Academic Transformation has worked with hundreds of public universities to redesign individual courses around a ‘blended model’ of education that takes greater advantage of technology. The average cost reduction from blended learning in higher education has been 39 percent, with some course costs reduced as much as 75 percent. Tightly structured, career-focused learning: noted political and cultural commentator David Brooks recently predicted that the future of universities is in practical knowledge. Noted education entrepreneurs such as Howard A. Tullman are building colleges with this very aim in mind. These colleges, like Tribeca Flashpoint Media Arts Academy and Kendall College, are training students in high-value skills and technologies through hands-on, team and project based, real world assignments. These types of colleges have a unique education goal, what Tony Wagner, the Harvard education specialist, describes as making every graduate “innovation ready,” or ready to add value to whatever they do. This type of career-focused learning is also disruptive in that it does not focus on degree attainment as the sole measure of success. According to Clayton Christensen, “Degrees are a proxy for skill attainment, but they are far from a perfect one, as seen in the amount of retraining that employers do as well as the current unemployment figures. Real outcomes and real mastery—as often shown in work portfolios for example—are more important.”
Wikipedia	Traditional encyclopedias	Traditionally edited general encyclopedias have been displaced by Wikipedia, the free, non-profit, community-edited online encyclopedia. Former market leader Encyclopædia Britannica ended print production after 244 years in 2012. Britannica's price of over $1000, its physical size of dozens of volumes, its weight of over 100 pounds, and its update cycles lasting a year or longer were all annulled by Wikipedia. Microsoft's Encarta, a 1993 entry into professionally edited digital encyclopedias, was once a major rival to Britannica but was discontinued in 2009. Wikipedia's lack of price, unlimited size and instant updates are the primary challenges for profitable competition in the consumer market.

 انظر أيضاً

• Artificial intelligence
• Blue Ocean Strategy
• Breakthrough Initiatives
• Creative destruction
• Creative disruption
• Culture lag
• Digital revolution
• Embrace, extend, extinguish
• Frugal innovation
• Hype cycle
• Killer application
• Leapfrogging
• List of emerging technologies
• Obsolescence
• Obsolete occupations - Jobs that have become obsolete, such as elevator operators
• Open innovation
• Pace of innovation
• Paradigm shift
• Product lifecycle
• Robotic process automation
• Social contract
• Shock doctrine
• Shock therapy (economics)
• Stranded asset
• Technology readiness level (NASA)
• Technology strategy

• تدمير خلاق
• تطبيق فاتك
• قائمة التقنيات الناشئة
• تحول النموذج الفكري Paradigm shift
• استراتيجية التكنولوجيا

 المصادر

• Anthony, Scott D.; Johnson, Mark W.; Sinfield, Joseph V.; Altman, Elizabeth J. (2008). Innovator's Guide to Growth - Putting Disruptive Innovation to Work. Harvard Business School Press. ISBN 978-1-59139-846-2.
• How to Identify and Build Disruptive New Businesses, MIT Sloan Management Review Spring 2002
• قالب:Christensen1997
• Christensen, Clayton M. & Overdorf, Michael. (2000). "Meeting the Challenge of Disruptive Change" Harvard Business Review, March–April 2000.
• Christensen, Clayton M., Bohmer, Richard, & Kenagy, John. (2000). "Will Disruptive Innovations Cure Health Care?" Harvard Business Review, September 2000.
• Christensen, Clayton M. (2003). The innovator's solution : creating and sustaining successful growth. Harvard Business Press. ISBN 978-1-57851-852-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Christensen, Clayton M.; Anthony, Scott D.; Roth, Erik A. (2004). Seeing What's Next. Harvard Business School Press. ISBN 978-1-59139-185-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Christensen, Clayton M., Baumann, Heiner, Ruggles, Rudy, & Sadtler, Thomas M. (2006). "Disruptive Innovation for Social Change" Harvard Business Review, December 2006.
• Mountain, Darryl R., Could New Technologies Cause Great Law Firms to Fail?
• Mountain, Darryl R. (2006). Disrupting conventional law firm business models using document assembly, International Journal of Law and Information Technology 2006; DOI:10.1093/ijlit/eal019
• Tushman, M.L. & Anderson, P. (1986). Technological Discontinuities and Organizational Environments. Administrative Science Quarterly 31: 439-465.
• Eric Chaniot (2007). "The Red Pill of Technology Innovation" Red Pill, October 2007.

 قراءات إضافية

• Danneels, Erwin (2004). "Disruptive Technology Reconsidered: A Critique and Research Agenda" (PDF). Journal of Product Innovation Management. 21 (4): 246–258.
• Danneels, Erwin (2006). "From the Guest Editor: Dialogue on The Effects of Disruptive Technology on Firms and Industries". Journal of Product Innovation Management. 23 (1): 2–4.

 وصلات خارجية

• Peer-reviewed chapter on Disruptive Innovation by Clayton Christensen with public commentaries by notable designers like Donald Norman
• The Myth of Disruptive Technologies. Note that Dvorák's definition of disruptive technology describes the low cost disruption model, above. He reveals the overuse of the term and shows how many disruptive technologies are not truly disruptive.
• "The Disruptive Potential of Game Technologies: Lessons Learned from its Impact on the Military Simulation Industry", by Roger Smith in Research Technology Management (September/October 2006)
• Disruptive Innovation Theory
• Bibliography of Christensen’s "Theory of Disruptive Innovation" as it relates to higher education
• Disruptive Technology Portfolio by InformationWeek and Credit Suisse
• [1] Diffusion of Innovations, Strategy and Innovations The D.S.I Framework by Francisco Rodrigues Gomes Academia.edu share research