Glossary of biology
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This glossary of biology terms is a list of definitions of fundamental terms and concepts used in biology, the study of life and of living organisms. It is intended as introductory material for novices; for more specific and technical definitions from sub-disciplines and related fields, see Glossary of cell biology, Glossary of genetics, Glossary of evolutionary biology, Glossary of ecology, Glossary of environmental science and Glossary of scientific naming, or any of the organism-specific glossaries in Category:Glossaries of biology.
A
- absorption
- (physiology) A process in which one substance permeates another. A fluid permeates or is dissolved by a liquid or solid. Skin absorption is a route by which substances can enter the body through the skin.
- acclimatization
- (physiology) Adaptation to a new climate, as with a new temperature or altitude or environment.
- acetyl-CoA
- (biochemistry) Acetyl coenzyme A is a molecule participating in many biochemical reactions in carbohydrate, protein and lipid metabolism. Its main function is to deliver the acetyl group to the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) to be oxidized for energy production.
- acoelomate
- (zoology) A type of animal, such as a flatworm, with a body plan that lacks a fluid-filled cavity between the body wall and the digestive tract. Rather, semi-solid mesodermal tissues between the gut and body wall hold the animal's organs in place. Contrast coelomate and pseudocoelomate.
- adaptation
- (evolutionary biology, population biology) Term can apply to an individual organism's adaptation to its environment, the adaptation of organisms to an environment through evolutionary processes, or the population dynamics intrisic to the evolutionary process.
- adenine
- (biochemistry) A purine-derived organic compound which is one of the four canonical nucleobases used in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. Its derivatives are involved in a wide variety of biochemical reactions, including cellular respiration.
- aerobic
- Capable of surviving and growing in the presence of oxygen.
- amino acid
- (biochemistry) A class of organic compounds containing an amine group and a carboxylic acid group which function as the fundamental building blocks of proteins and play important roles in many other biochemical processes.
- anaerobic
- Any organism that does not require molecular oxygen for growth.
- animal
- Any member of a clade of multicellular eukaryotic organisms belonging to the biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, are able to move, reproduce sexually, and grow from a blastula during embryonic development. An estimated 7 million distinct animal species currently exist.
- antibiotic
B
- B cell
- A type of lymphocyte in the humoral immunity of the adaptive immune system.
- bacteria
- An enormous and diverse clade of microscopic, prokaryotic, single-celled organisms which lack a true nucleus. They represent one of the three fundamental biological domains.
- bacteriophage
- A virus that infects and multiplies within bacteria.
- Barr body
- The inactive X chromosome in a female somatic cell, rendered inactive in a process called lyonization, in those species in which sex is determined by the presence of the Y chromosome (including humans) or W chromosome rather than by the presence of two X chromosomes or two Z chromosomes.
- basal body
- An organelle formed from a centriole, and a short cylindrical array of microtubules. Also called a basal granule, a kinetosome, and in older cytological literature, a blepharoplast.
- behavioral ecology
- The study of the evolutionary basis for animal behavior due to ecological pressures.
- bile
- A dark green to yellowish-brown fluid, produced by the liver of most vertebrates, which aids the digestion of lipids in the small intestine. Also called gall.
- binary fission
- The process by which one prokaryotic cell divides into two identical daughter cells.
- binomial nomenclature
- A formal system of classifying species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, both of which use Latin grammatical forms, although they can be based on words from other languages.
- biocatalysis
- The process of catalysis in biological systems. In biocatalytic processes, natural catalysts, such as protein enzymes, perform chemical transformations on organic compounds.
- biochemistry
- The branch of biology that studies the chemical properties, compositions, reactions, and processes related to living organisms.
- biodiversity
- A contraction of "biological diversity" generally referring to the variety and variability of life on Earth.
- bioengineering
- The application of concepts and methods of biology to solve real-world problems related to the life sciences or the application thereof.
- bioenergetics
- The study of the transformation of energy within and between living organisms.
- biogeography
- The study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. Organisms and biological communities often vary in a regular fashion along geographic gradients of latitude, elevation, isolation and habitat area.
- bioinformatics
- The application of computer technology to the management of biological information.
- biological organization
- The hierarchy of complex biological structures and systems, designed to define life through a reductionist approach.
- biology
- The scientific study of life.
- biomass
- Organic matter derived from living or recently living organisms. Biomass can be used as a source of energy and it most often refers to plants or plant-based materials which are not used for food or feed, and are specifically called lignocellulosic biomass.
- biomathematics
- The theoretical use of mathematical models and abstractions of living systems to understand and predict biological problems.
- biome
- Any very large ecological area on the Earth's surface containing fauna and flora (animals and plants) adapting to their environment. Biomes are often defined by abiotic factors such as climate, topographical relief, geology, soils, and water resources.
- biomechanics
- The study of the structure and function of biological systems by means of the methods of "mechanics", which is the branch of physics involving analysis of the actions of forces.
- biomedical engineering
- The application of engineering principles and design concepts to medicine and biology for healthcare purposes (e.g. diagnostic or therapeutic).
- biomedical research
- The pursuit of answers to medical questions. These investigations lead to discoveries, which in turn lead to the development of new preventions, therapies, and cures for problems in human and veterinary health. Biomedical research generally takes two forms: basic science and applied research.
- biomolecule
- Molecules and ions that are present in organisms, essential to some typically biological process such as cell division, morphogenesis, or development.
- biophysics
- The application of approaches traditionally employed in physics to study biological systems.
- biosynthesis
- biotechnology
- Biotechnology is the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make products, or "any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use" (UN Convention on Biological Diversity).
- bipedal
- A form of terrestrial locomotion where an organism moves by means of its two rear limbs or legs.
- birth
- blastocyst
- A mammalian blastula in which some differentiation of cells has occurred.
- blood
- A body fluid that circulates in humans and other vertebrate animals and is generally responsible for delivering necessary substances such as oxygen and nutrients between the cells and tissues of the body and transporting metabolic waste products away from those same cells and tissues.
- blood–brain barrier
- A semipermeable membrane separating the blood from the cerebrospinal fluid, and constituting a barrier to the passage of cells, particles, and large molecules.
- botany
- The branch of biology that studies plants.
- building biology
- A science that leads to natural healthy ecological homes, schools, and workplaces that exist in harmony with the environment.
C
D
- Darwinian fitness
- The genetic contribution of an individual to the next generation's gene pool relative to the average for the population, usually measured by the number of offspring or close kin that survive to reproductive age.
- deciduous
- Deciduous means "falling off at maturity" or "tending to fall off", and it is typically used in botany in order to refer to trees or shrubs that lose their leaves seasonally (most commonly during autumn) and to the shedding of other plant structures such as petals after flowering or fruits when ripe.
- decomposition
- The process by which the organic compounds of deceased organisms are broken down into simpler organic or inorganic matter such as carbon dioxide, water, simple sugars, and mineral salts. These reactions occur naturally by both biotic means (biodegradation, such as that practiced by many bacteria and fungi) and abiotic means (basic physical and chemical processes, such as hydrolysis). Decomposition recycles matter present in the biosphere, making it an essential part of the nutrient cycle. Organisms that facilitate decomposition are known as decomposers; the scientific study of decomposition is known as taphonomy.
- decomposer
- Any organism that facilitates the breakdown of dead or decaying organisms by carrying out the decomposition of complex biomolecules into simpler substances. Decomposers are heterotrophs which obtain energy and nutrition for their own growth and reproduction by recycling the chemical compounds contained in organic substrates. Microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi are the biosphere's chief decomposers, but invertebrates such as earthworms are also sometimes considered decomposers.
- dehydration reaction
- A chemical reaction that involves the loss of a water molecule from the reacting molecule.
- denaturation
- A process in which proteins or nucleic acids lose the quaternary, tertiary, and secondary structure which is present in their native state, when exposed to some external stress or chemical compound such as a strong acid or base, a concentrated inorganic salt, or an organic solvent.
- dendrite
- A short branched extension of a nerve cell, along which impulses received from other cells at synapses are transmitted to the cell body.
- denitrification
- The microbially facilitated process of nitrate reduction that ultimately produces molecular nitrogen (N2) through a series of intermediate gaseous nitrogen oxide products. It is performed by a large group of heterotrophic facultative anaerobic bacteria and is a fundamental component of the nitrogen cycle.
- deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
- A nucleic acid polymer that serves as the fundamental hereditary material in all living organisms. Each DNA molecule is composed of long sequences of nucleotides, each of which includes one of four nitrogenous bases – adenine (abbreviated A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T) – attached to a sugar-phosphate complex which acts as a "backbone" for the long-chain polymer. DNA most commonly occurs in "double-stranded" form, i.e. as a pair of nucleotide polymers bound together by complementary base pairing.
- depolarization
- The process of reversing the charge across a cell membrane (such as that of a neuron), thereby causing an action potential. In depolarization, the inside of the membrane, which is normally negatively charged, becomes positive and the outside becomes negative. This is brought about by positively charged sodium ions rapidly passing into the axon.
- desmosome
E
- ecological efficiency
- The efficiency with which energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next. It is determined by a combination of efficiencies relating to organismic resource acquisition and assimilation in an ecosystem.
- ecological pyramid
F
- facultative anaerobe
- An organism which is capable of producing energy through aerobic respiration and then switching to anaerobic respiration depending on the amounts of oxygen and fermentable material in the environment.
- family
- fermentation
- A metabolic process that consumes sugar in the absence of oxygen.
- fitness
- fitness landscape
- fertilization
- fetus
G
- G protein
- A family of proteins that act as molecular switches inside cells, and are implicated in transmitting signals from a diversity of stimuli outside a cell to its interior.
- gamete
- gene
- Any segment of DNA that contains the information necessary to produce a functional RNA and/or protein product in a controlled manner. Genes are often considered the fundamental molecular units of heredity. The transmission of genes from a parent cell or organism to its offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits.
- gene pool
- A set of all genes, or genetic information, in any population, usually of a particular species.
- generation
- genetic code
- A set of rules used by living cells to translate information encoded within genetic material (DNA or mRNA sequences) into proteins.
- genetic drift
- An alteration in the frequency of an existing gene variant in a population due to random sampling of organisms.
- genetic variation
- Variations of genomes between members of species, or between groups of species thriving in different parts of the world as a result of genetic mutation. Genetic diversity in a population or species is a result of new gene combinations (e.g. crossing over of chromosomes), genetic mutations, genetic drift, etc.
- genetics
- The study of heredity.
- genome
- The entire set of genetic material contained within the chromosomes of an organism, organelle, or virus.
- genotype
- Part of the genetic makeup of a cell, and therefore of an organism or individual, which determines one of its characteristics (phenotype).
- genus
- gizzard
- An organ found in the digestive tract of some animals, including archosaurs (pterosaurs, crocodiles, alligators, and dinosaurs, including birds), earthworms, some gastropods, some fish, and some crustaceans.
- guanine
- One of the four main nucleobases found in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA, the others being adenine, cytosine, and thymine (uracil in RNA).
H
- habitat
- A place for animals, people, and plants and non-living things.
- habituation
- A form of learning in which an organism decreases or desists its responses to a stimulus after repeated or prolonged presentations.
- heredity
- The passing on of phenotypic traits from parents to their offspring, either through sexual or asexual reproduction. Offspring cells and organisms are said to inherit the genetic information of their parents.
- hermaphrodite
- A sexually reproducing organism with both male and female reproductive organs.
- herpetology
- The branch of zoology that studies reptiles and amphibians.
- heterosis
- The improved or increased function of any biological quality in a hybrid offspring.
- heterotroph
- histology
- The study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals.
- Hodgkin–Huxley model
- A mathematical model that describes how action potentials in neurons are initiated and propagated.
- hormone
- Any member of a class of signaling molecules produced by glands in multicellular organisms that are transported by the circulatory system to target distant organs to regulate physiology and behaviour.
- host
- Any living organism that harbors another living organism (known as a "guest" or symbiont), whether the guest is parasitic, mutualistic, or commensalist in its interactions with the host. The guest typically receives shelter and nourishment from the host.
- hybrid
- hydrocarbon
- An organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon atoms. Hydrocarbons from which one hydrogen atom has been removed are functional groups called hydrocarbyls.
I
- ichthyology
- The branch of biology devoted to the study of fish, including bony fishes (Osteichthyes), cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes), and jawless fish (Agnatha).
- immune response
- The immune response is how your body recognizes and defends itself against bacteria, viruses, and substances that appear foreign and harmful.
- immunity
- immunoglobulin
- Any of a class of glycoprotein molecules produced by plasma cells (white blood cells) which act as a critical part of the immune response by specifically recognizing and binding to particular antigens, such as bacteria or viruses, and aiding in their destruction. They are a major component of the group of immune defense molecules collectively called antibodies.
- infection
- The invasion of an organism's cells or tissues by a disease-causing pathogen, its growth and/or multiplication, and the reaction of the host organism to the infectious agent and the toxins it produces. The variety of biological pathogens capable of causing infections includes certain bacteria, viruses, fungi, protists, parasitic worms, and arthropods.
- insulin
- An anabolic peptide hormone produced in the pancreas which helps to regulate the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and protein by promoting the absorption of glucose from the blood into liver, fat, and skeletal muscle cells. Abnormal insulin activity is the cause of diabetes mellitus.
- integrative biology
- The various forms of cross-disciplinary and multitaxon research.
- interferon
- A group of signaling proteins made and released by host cells in response to the presence of several pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria, parasites, or tumor cells. In a typical scenario, a virus-infected cell will release interferons causing nearby cells to heighten their antiviral defenses.
- internal fertilization
- A type of fertilization which takes place inside the egg-producing individual.
- International System of Units
- (French: Système international d'unités; abbreviated SI) The modern standardized form of the metric system of units and measurements, and the system of measurement formally adopted for use in the physical and natural sciences.
- interphase
- intracellular
J
- jejunum
- like gher vertebrates like mammals, birds, and reptiles. It is present between the duodenum and the ileum.
K
- kinase
- An enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of phosphate groups from high-energy, phosphate-donating molecules to specific substrates.
- kingdom
- Krebs cycle
- See citric acid cycle.
L
- larva
- (pl.) larvae
- A distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development, such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians, typically have a larval phase of their life cycle.
- Law of Independent Assortment
- The principle, originally formulated by Gregor Mendel, stating that when two or more characteristics are inherited, individual hereditary factors assort independently during gamete production, giving different traits an equal opportunity of occurring together.
- leukocyte
M
- M phase
- Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the mitotic (M) phase of an animal cell cycle – the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells, genetically identical to each other and to their parent cell.
- macroevolution
- Evolution on a scale of separated gene pools. Macroevolutionary studies focus on change that occurs at or above the level of species, in contrast with microevolution, which refers to smaller evolutionary changes (typically described as changes in allele frequencies) within a species or population.
- macromolecule
- A very large molecule, such as a protein, commonly created by polymerization of smaller subunits (monomers). They are typically composed of thousands or more atoms.
- macronutrient
- Nutrients needed in large amounts which provide calories or energy. Nutrients are substances needed for growth, metabolism, and for other body functions. There are three basic types of macronutrients: fats, proteins, and carbohydrates.
- macrophage
- A kind of swallowing cell, which means it functions by literally swallowing up other particles or smaller cells. Macrophages engulf and digest debris (such as dead cells) and foreign particles through the process of phagocytosis, so macrophages act like scavengers.
- mammalogy
- The branch of biology that studies mammals, a class of vertebrates with characteristics such as homeothermic metabolism, fur, four-chambered hearts, and complex nervous systems.
- marine biology
- The study of organisms in the ocean or other marine bodies of water. Given that in biology many phyla, families and genera have some species that live in the sea and others that live on land, marine biology classifies species based on the environment rather than on taxonomy.
- mast cell
- A cell filled with basophil granules, found in numbers in connective tissue and releasing histamine and other substances during inflammatory and allergic reactions.
- mating
- medulla
- The continuation of the spinal cord within the skull, forming the lowest part of the brainstem and containing control centres for the heart and lungs.
- meiosis
- A specialized type of cell division in which a dividing parent cell proceeds through two consecutive divisions, ultimately producing four genetically unique daughter cells in each of which the chromosome number is half of that in the original parent cell. This process is exclusive to cells of the sex organs in sexually reproducing eukaryotes, where it serves the purpose of generating gametes such as eggs, sperm, or spores.
- membrane potential
- When a nerve or muscle cell is at "rest", its membrane potential is called the resting membrane potential. In a typical neuron, this is about –70 millivolts (mV). The minus sign indicates that the inside of the cell is negative with respect to the surrounding extracellular fluid.
- messenger RNA
- A large family of RNA molecules that convey genetic information from DNA to the ribosome.
- metabolism
- metamorphosis
- metaphase
- The third phase of mitosis, in which duplicated genetic material carried in the nucleus of a parent cell is separated into two identical daughter cells. During metaphase, the cell's chromosomes align themselves in the middle of the cell through a type of cellular "tug of war".
- microbiology
- The study of microscopic organisms, such as bacteria, viruses, archaea, fungi and protozoa. This discipline includes fundamental research on the biochemistry, physiology, cell biology, ecology, evolution and clinical aspects of microorganisms, including the host response to these agents.
- microevolution
- The alteration in allele frequencies that occurs over time within a population.
- mitochondria
N
- natural selection
- A process in nature in which organisms possessing certain genotypic characteristics that make them better adjusted to an environment tend to survive, reproduce, increase in number or frequency, and therefore, are able to transmit and perpetuate their essential genotypic qualities to succeeding generations.
- neurobiology
O
- offspring
- order
- organ
- A collection of tissues joined in a structural unit to serve a common function.
- organism
- A contiguous living system.
- ornithology
- The branch of zoology that concerns the study of birds.
- osmosis
- The spontaneous net movement of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane into a region of higher solute concentration, in the direction that tends to equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides.
P
- paleontology
- The study of the history of life on Earth as reflected in the fossil record. Fossils are the remains or traces of organisms that lived in the geological past and have been preserved in the Earth's crust.
- parallel evolution
- The development of a similar trait in related, but distinct, species descending from the same ancestor, but from different clades.
- parasite
- parasitology
- The study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them. As a biological discipline, the scope of parasitology is not determined by the organism or environment in question, but by their way of life.
- pathobiology
- The study or practice of pathology with greater emphasis on the biological than on the medical aspects.
- pathogen
- In the broadest sense, anything that can produce disease, though the term is most commonly used to refer specifically to an infectious microscopic organism such as a virus, bacterium, protozoan, or another microbial agent which causes disease for a host organism by invading the host's tissues.
- pathology
- A medical specialty that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the laboratory analysis of bodily fluids such as blood and urine, as well as tissues, using the tools of chemistry, clinical microbiology, hematology, and molecular pathology.
- pH
- A numeric scale used to specify the acidity or basicity (alkalinity) of an aqueous solution. It is roughly the negative of the logarithm to base 10 of the concentration, measured in units of moles per liter, of hydrogen ions.
- pharmacology
- The science of drug action on biological systems. In its entirety, it embraces knowledge of the sources, chemical properties, biological effects, and therapeutic uses of drugs.
- phenotype
- The composite of an organism's observable features or traits, such as its morphology, development, biochemical or physiological properties, behavior, and products of behavior.
- pheromone
- A secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species. Pheromones are analogous to hormones acting outside the body of the secreting individual to impact the behavior of receiving individuals.
- phloem
- The conducting tissue in plants responsible for the conduction of food particles.
- photosynthesis
- The process by which nearly all plants and some algae and bacteria convert the energy of sunlight into chemical energy, which is used to synthesize carbohydrates such as sugars from carbon dioxide and water; these carbohydrates are stored as food, and the energy within them is later released to fuel metabolic activities. Organisms that perform photosynthesis are therefore autotrophs. Photosynthesis supplies the majority of the energy necessary for life on Earth.
- phylogeny
- phylum
- A taxonomic rank or level of classification below kingdom and above class; in botany, the term division is commonly used in place of phylum.
- physiology
- The branch of biology dealing with the functions and activities of living organisms and their parts, including all physical and chemical processes.
- phytochemistry
- The study of phytochemicals, which are chemicals derived from plants.
- phytopathology
- The science of diagnosing and managing plant diseases.
- piliferous
- Bearing hair
- placebo
- A substance or treatment of no intended therapeutic value.
- plant
- plasmolysis
- The process in which cells lose water in a hypertonic solution.
- pollination
- The transfer of pollen from a male part of a plant to a female part of a plant, enabling later fertilisation and the production of seeds. Pollen is most commonly transported by animals or by wind.
- polymer
- A large macromolecule composed of many repeated subunits.
- polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
- A technique used in molecular biology to amplify a single copy or a few copies of a segment of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence.
- polyploidy
- Having or containing more than two complete sets of chromosomes.
- population
- All the organisms of the same group or species that live in a particular geographical area and are capable of interbreeding.
- population biology
- The study of populations of organisms, especially the regulation of population size, life history traits such as clutch size, and extinction.
- population ecology
R
- regeneration
- The process of renewal, restoration, and growth that makes genomes, cells, organisms, and ecosystems resilient to natural fluctuations or events that cause disturbance or damage. For example, many organisms are capable of regenerating tissues and even entire body parts if they are lost or destroyed.
- reproduction
S
- sclerenchyma
- A type of tissue in which cells have thick lignified secondary walls and often die when mature.
- seed
- The embryo, enclosed in a protective outer covering, of certain types of plants.
- selective breeding
- See artificial selection.
- sessile
- 1. Generally, lacking motility or means of self-locomotion; immobile or incapable of movement. Sessile organisms may move via external forces such as wind or water currents but are more often permanently fixed to a solid object such as a rock, soil, or another organism.
- 2. In botany, the property of a plant or plant part that is attached directly by its base to an object or another plant part, i.e. without an intervening stem, stalk, or petiole.
- sex
- sexual reproduction
- A type of reproduction in which cells from two parents unite to form the first cell of a new organism.
- sociality
- The degree to which individuals in an animal population tend to associate in social groups and form cooperative societies.
- sociobiology
- A branch of biology that is based on the hypothesis that social behavior has resulted from evolution and which attempts to explain and examine social behavior within that context.
- soil biology
- The study of microbial and faunal activity and ecology in soil.
- species
- The basic unit of biological classification and the narrowest of the canonical taxonomic ranks, as well as a unit of biodiversity. Species are traditionally distinguished on the basis of reproductive compatibility, though achieving a satisfactory definition that is universally applicable to all life has proven difficult, since many organisms classified as distinct "species" are capable of interbreeding with different (albeit closely related) species, generating hybrids.
- speciation
- The evolutionary process by which populations of organisms evolve to become distinct species, typically via reproductive isolation.
- sperm
- spore
- stem cell
- A type of undifferentiated or partially undifferentiated cell that is capable of differentiating into other types of specialized cells and also capable of dividing to produce more of the same type of stem cell. Stem cells are the earliest type of cell in a cell lineage.
- steroid
- A biologically active organic compound with four rings arranged in a specific molecular configuration.
- strain
- A genetic variant, subtype, or culture identified as a distinct taxonomic subdivision within a species. The term is most commonly used to identify particular types of bacteria and viruses.
- structural biology
- The branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macromolecules, especially proteins and nucleic acids, how they acquire the structures they have, and how alterations in their structures affect their function.
- symbiogenesis
- See endosymbiotic theory.
- symbiont
- Any organism involved in any type of symbiosis with another organism, either of the same or a different species.
- symbiosis
- Any close and long-term interaction between two different biological organisms, regardless of the nature or degree of the effect on either organism. Examples include mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism.
- synthetic biology
- An interdisciplinary branch of biology and engineering combining various disciplines from within these domains, including biotechnology, evolutionary biology, molecular biology, systems biology, biophysics, computer engineering, and genetic engineering.
- systematics
- The scientific study of biodiversity. It is concerned with the discovering and naming of new species of organisms (nomenclature) and arranging these taxa into classification schemes (taxonomy). A large part of modern systematics is concerned with understanding the evolutionary relationships between various taxa (phylogenetics) using methods of comparative biology (e.g. physiology, behavior, biochemistry, morphology, genetics) and statistical analysis.
- systems biology
- A branch of biology concerned with the computational and mathematical analysis of complex biological systems. It is an interdisciplinary field which combines elements of systems theory and applied mathematics with theoretical biology, with a primary aim to discover and model the emergent properties of interacting biological entities.
T
- T cell
- A type of lymphocyte that plays a central role in cell-mediated immunity.
- taxon
U
- uncoating
- The decomposition of a viral capsid. An informal and simplified description of the way a virus infectious material enters the cell, usually appearing in light science material for the general public.
- unicellular
- Having or consisting of only one cell, as opposed to being multicellular.
- uracil
- One of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid of RNA that are represented by the letters A, G, C and U.
- urea
- An organic compound with chemical formula CO(NH2)2.
- urine
- A liquid byproduct of metabolism in humans and in many animals.
- uterus
- A major female hormone-responsive secondary sex organ of the reproductive system in humans and most other mammals.
V
- vacuole
- A membrane-bound organelle which is present in all plant and fungal cells and some protist, animal, and bacterial cells.
- vasodilation
- The widening of blood vessels.
- vector
- vegetative reproduction
- Any type of asexual reproduction performed by an organism which is nonetheless capable of sexual reproduction. The term is used primarily for plants.
- vertebrate
- vesicle
- A small structure within or sometimes external to a cell, consisting of fluid enclosed by a lipid bilayer.
- vestigiality
- The retention during the process of evolution of genetically determined structures or attributes that have lost some or all of their ancestral function in a given species.
- virology
- The branch of biology that studies viruses.
- virus
- A submicroscopic, infectious, parasitic particle of genetic material contained in a protein coat and which replicates only inside the living cell of a host organism.
W
- white blood cell
- See leukocyte.
- whole genome sequencing
- The process of determining the complete DNA sequence of a particular organism's entire genome at a single time.
- wood
- The inner layer of the stems of woody plants such as trees and shrubs, composed of xylem.
X
- xanthophyll
- A yellow-colored photosynthetic pigment.
- xylem
- A type of plant tissue responsible for the transport of water from roots to aerial parts of the plant.
Y
- yolk
- The nutrient-bearing portion of the egg whose primary function is to supply food for the development of the embryo.
Z
- zoology
- The branch of biology that studies the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and geographical distribution of all animals, both living and extinct, and how they interact with their ecosystems.
- zooplankton
- A type of heterotrophic (sometimes detritivorous) plankton, as opposed to phytoplankton, which instead obtain energy from photosynthesis. Individual zooplankton are usually microscopic, but some (such as jellyfish) are larger and visible to the naked eye.
- zygospore
- A diploid reproductive stage in the life cycle of many fungi and protists.
- zygote
- A eukaryotic cell formed by a fertilization event between two gametes.
Related to this search
- Index of biology articles
- Outline of biology
- Glossaries of sub-disciplines and related fields:
References
- ^ Silverstein, Alvin (2008). Photosynthesis. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 21. ISBN 9780822567981.
- ^ Rajewsky, Klaus (1996). "Clonal selection and learning in the antibody system". Nature. 381 (6585): 751–758. Bibcode:1996Natur.381..751R. doi:10.1038/381751a0. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 8657279. S2CID 4279640.
- ^ Hardin J, Bertoni G, Kleinsmith LJ (2015). Becker's World of the Cell (8th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 422–446. ISBN 978013399939-6.
- ^ McKinley, Michael; Dean O'Loughlin, Valerie; Pennefather-O'Brien, Elizabeth; Harris, Ronald (2015). Human Anatomy (4th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill Education. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-07-352573-0.
| مجالات وتخصصات | تاريخ طبيعي • تاريخ الزراعة • تاريخ الطب • تاريخ التشريح • تاريخ علم الحيوان (خلال 1859)• History of plant systematics • تاريخ الجيولوجية • تاريخ علم النبات • تاريخ الفكر التطوري • تاريخ علم الحيوان (1859–1912) • تاريخ علم البيئة • History of model organisms • History of phycology • تاريخ علم الوراثة • تاريخ الكيمياء الحيوية • تاريخ علم الزراعة • تاريخ البيولوجيا الجزيئية • تاريخ التطور الجزيئي • تاريخ علم المناعة • تاريخ التكنولوجيا الحيوية |  |
|---|---|---|
| معاهد | ||
| تجارب | ||
| منشورات | On Generation and Corruption • Historia Plantarum • De humani corporis fabrica • De motu cordis • Micrographia • Systema Naturae • Philosophie Zoologique • مبدائ الجيولوجيا • Vestiges of Creation • The Origin of Species • "Experiments on Plant Hybridization" • The Descent of Man • "The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance" • What is Life? • Genetics and the Origin of Species • "Molecular structure of Nucleic Acids" | |
| شخصيات مؤثرة | أرسطو • أندرياس ڤساليوس • وليام هارڤي • أنتوني ڤان ليؤڤنهوك • كارولوس لينايوس • جورج-لوي لكلرك، كونت بوفون • جان-باتيست لامارك • ألكسندر فون هومبولت • Charles Lyell • تشارلز دارون • ألفرد روسل والس • جريجور مندل • لويس باستير • روبرت كوخ • إرنست هيكل • إيڤان پاڤلوڤ • Jacques Loeb • Hugo de Vries • E. B. Wilson • توماس مورگان • Aleksandr Oparin • ألكسندر فلمينگ • J. B. S. Haldane • Sewall Wright • R. A. Fisher • كونراد لورنتس • بربرا مكلينتوك • Theodosius Dobzhansky • Ernst Mayr • جورج بيدل • Seymour Benzer • روزالند فرانكلين • جيمس واطسون • فرانسيس كريك • Fred Sanger • ماكس پروتس • جون كندرو • سيدني برنر • جوشوا لدربرگ • والتر گيلبرت • Kary Mullis • ستيفن جاي جولد • Lynn Margulis • Carl Woese • Jane Goodall | |
| موضوعات متعلقة | ||